Conceptual Framework of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is defined as a “purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and natural history of the environment, taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, while producing economic opportunities that make the conservation of natural resources beneficial to local people” (McCormick, 1994). Based on this definition, the conceptual framework was formulated. The operationalization of the framework included an assessment procedure, the ecotourism standards and its corresponding management guidelines. and a communication plan. These tools were guided by the principles presented by Jeffries (1997) on biodiversity and conservation, Kersten (1997) on Community Based Ecotourism and Community Building, Kusler (1991) on Strengthening Resource Conservation through Ecotourism, and McCormick (1994) on how ecotourism can save a rainforest. Furthermore, the experiences gained by Regis et al. (2000) from the Ecotourism project for the two municipalities of Sorsogon reinforced the management guidelines put together based on the Philippine situation.

Characteristics of ecotourism

According to Chesworth (1995), Ecotourism has six characteristics. These are: a) ecotourism involves travel to relatively undisturbed natural areas and/or archeological sites, b) it focuses on learning and the quality of experience, c) it economically benefits the local communities, d) ecotourists seek to view rare species, spectacular landscapes and/or the unusual and exotic, e) ecotourists do not deplete resources but even sustain the environment or help undo damage to the environment, and f) ecotourists appreciate and respect local culture, traditions, etc.

Moreover, Kusler (1991) believes that ecotourism must have a strong “people element”. For example, the travelers should learn about the forest and its people. They should also learn the causes of destruction of the rainforests. The project must also be built through the cooperative action of a variety of key groups because failure to involve even a single group may result in destruction of the resource.

In the development of the ecotourism project for Sorsogon, Regis et al (2000) came up with two attributes of ecotourism: a) Species and ecosystem conservation, and b) livelihood for local communities. For a successful implementation of the project, these two attributes must set a balance to be sustainable. Too much of a) will conserve the resource but will not provide sufficient economic benefits to the local people who will eventually deplete the resource to make a living. Likewise, too much of b) will entice earning profit more than what the ecosystem can sustain, thereby causing degradation of the ecosystem and the demise/disappearance of valuable species that are the attractions for tourists.

One important contribution in the ecotourism framework came from Community-based Ecotourism of Kersten (1997) who defined Community-based Ecotourism as a kind of nature tourism wherein the local community maintains full (or major) control over the management and the profits of the project. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the community-based ecotourism principles. The emphasis of this strategy is community development and participation of the marginalized sector (including indigenous groups) rather than on regional or national development. It also has the following aims:

to help preserve ecosystems and natural areas (usually already within protected areas) with a high tourism potential;

to cultivate environmental consciousness among the local population by educating them about the dangers of overexploiting resources and unrestricted number of tourists;

to promote new economic incentives, e.g. selling of local (environmentally safe) products, crafts, and cultivated medicinal plants thereby create some entrepreneurial skills;

to ensure communal ownership and control, and that part of the profits flow into community development programs rather than into personal enrichment; and

to foster a feeling of pride and community through a revival or preservation of “traditional” practices and cultural techniques.

Ecosystem destroyed by too many tourists. Few people visit the place.

Ecosystems intact but Ecotourism is not a viable livelihood for the local community

Figure 1. Community-based Ecotourism

In Figure 1, interested members of the local community including the barangay council undergo capability-building trainings that include a) orientation and understanding of the ecological concepts, ecotourism standards and possible schemes for the implementation of appropriate management guidelines. In addition, organizational development of the management structure includes also the communications plan that will guide participating organizations and agencies in the orderly flow of communications among responsible groups. Once the capabilities of the involved persons and organizations is set, the community is now ready to implement the Community-Based Ecotourism (CBE) project which is able to create job opportunities while at the same time save/protect/conserve the species and the ecosystem.

The diagram also emphasizes that should the community become too much focused in creating jobs, the ecosystem could degrade because of the stress received by the ecotourism attractions. Likewise, the opposite trend could also happen when management focused mostly on conservation so that the community viewed the CBE as not a viable livelihood. The resulting discontent among the local people could lead to uncontrolled utilization of the resources for livelihood and survival.

The following sections presents the a) ecotourism standards that must be met when planning for a specific project; b) the management guidelines that could guide the LGUs when considering the specifics of the project; and c) the communications plan that could direct how the implementation of the project should proceed.

THE STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES

ECOTOURISM STANDARDS

A. Protection of the Ecosystem

1. Maintenance of the ecosystem where the ecotourism attraction is located

2. Protection and maintenance of wildlife especially endangered species

3. Wildlife live harmoniously with people

B. Maintenance of the physico-chemical conditions of the area

1. Maintenance of the quality of fresh water and marine resources

2. No wastes overflow and contamination of the environment (water, soil and air)

C. Conservation of local culture and history

1. Culture of locality is maintained

2. Historical structures are maintained as part of cultural heritage

D. Infrastructures and signboards blend with the environment

E. Sustainability

1. Maintenance of Carrying Capacity of the environment;

2. Environmental education program is part of the ecotourism package;

3. Livelihood must benefit more the local community than outside entrepreneurs;

4. The local government supports the ecotourism project through ordinances and resolutions; and

5. The Management Board (community-based) and appropriate government agencies, e.g. DENR, support the project through strict enforcement of environmental laws

Based on the conceptual framework discussed earlier, the principles supporting the above standards are:

1. The major foundation of ecotourism is the saving of the species and their habitats. This is called biodiversity conservation.

2. Deliberate introduction of species which are not original settlers in the area can destroy the ecosystem due to possible diseases they carry. Other introduced species have no natural predators or competitors so that they tend to dominate and/or wipe out population of native species in the area (Miller, 1997).

3. Some biodiversity principles forwarded by Jeffries (1997) are:

a) Biodiversity is the variety and richness of life on earth. Its destruction is due to human pressure. Laws on conservation/protection are passed to safeguard parks, reserves, and refuges/sanctuaries;

b) The potentials of biodiversity are: 1) the value of species (plants, animals, algae, fungi and microbes) for medical and food uses are important arguments to defend the ecosystem. Examples are medicinal plants found only in natural ecosystems; 2) some species found in these natural systems have the genes needed to improve existing crops or mariculture species, and 3) wild strains of crops/mariculture species may enhance resistance to disease, pests and climatic variation;

c) Biodiversity increases with increasing area due to increasingly different habitats; and

d) The greater the variety of types of habitat, the greater the diversity of species. For example the greater variety of plant species will increase associated animals such as insects.

4. Fresh water is a necessity. It is also a limited and valuable resource, thus the need for utmost care and maintenance. The availability of clean fresh water ensures the pristine state of the habitat and basic necessities for potable water, thus, the assurance for a clean resource for the ecotourists.

5. Wastes overflow contaminates the environment be it water, soil and air and cause a variety of illnesses for people especially tourists who probably have not yet developed resistance to such disease. It is also possible that the tourists carry the disease and wastes overflow harbors pests that act as carriers of the disease organisms that can contaminate local residents.

6. Cultural contacts with foreign and western culture can cause negative impacts on the native population by imbibing western consumerism and materialism that alienate local residents with their own culture.

7. Historical structures are legacy of the past history and culture of the area. Conservation and understanding history can bring pride among the local residents and provide a learning experience to ecotourists.

8. Tall and imposing infrastructures and signboards cause visual pollution that defeats the purpose of natural setting.

9. Population pressure is one factor that can degrade ecosystems by exceeding the carrying capacity of the environment to assimilate wastes, noise and other disturbances.

10. Environmental education program ensures that local communities and tourist understood the need for conservation and protection of the environment

11. Livelihood opportunities provide economic benefits to the local communities thereby obtain their willingness to protect and conserve the resource

12. The success of any project ultimate lies in the support of the local government who creates ordinances and barangay resolutions to ensure the smooth implementation of activities and enforcement of applicable regulations.

MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES

A. Protection of the Ecosystem (see Figure 2)

The existing species including rock formation in falls/rivers/creeks as well as beach and other shore landscapes and coral reefs, must be maintained. Only a minimal alteration can be allowed in the these areas. In rivers, rock rearrangement and/or extraction should not alter water flow too much as to change the velocity of the river and/or direction of water flow downstream. Beach and shore landscapes must not be cluttered with beach houses and other infrastructures. Corals must not be extracted or removed to give way for swimming area.

Preserve the natural setting of springs and falls, e.g. do not remove mosses, ferns, etc. (except for a few for aesthetic purposes); do not construct picnic huts or place tables and chairs in the ecotourism attraction.

The approximate number of individuals per species in each attraction must be maintained to a level that can allow them to reproduce and be replenished. In general, species that are rarely seen means that they have small populations.

Minimize noise in the terrestrial and aquatic environments when viewing rare and interesting or endangered species in the wild. Likewise, minimize disturbance in the water in marine ecosystems. Loud noise and unnatural water movements disturb the organisms.

Monitoring the volume of water in the falls can be done by picture comparison. The initial photo taken can be used as baseline information for the volume of water released by the river into the falls. Reduction in the flow of water and volume can indicate destruction of the watershed above these areas. Similarly, it can also be used to assess the condition of siltation and algal bloom in the creek/river.

Monitoring water quality in the freshwater and marine environments must be done regularly to prevent build-up of pollution.

An off season for visitors may be incorporated in the management plan whenever certain species are endangered or hazards from flooding or toxic algal bloom are in the alert level.

Prevent environmental impacts of the ecotourism attraction by prohibiting the following activities:

a) the removal/extraction of materials in and around the ecotourism attraction, such as logging and treasure hunting in the protected area. Disturbance to vegetation and soil can cause siltation of the river/creek that will affect the attraction potential of ecotourism sites.

b) the introduction of new species not found in the area as such species may carry diseases, compete with food and other resources or become predator affecting local and/or endemic species (Miller, 1997),

c) introducing pollutants to water, air and soil,

d) hunting and gathering of fauna and flora, and

e) construction of high-rise infrastructure within the ecotourism sites

In Figure 3, the three standards with their corresponding guidelines show interconnectedness. For instance, the guidelines for the maintenance of the ecosystem also ensures protection and maintenance of the wildlife. Likewise, the guidelines needed to achieve protection and maintenance of wildlife would eventually lead to harmonious relationships of living organisms with the people. Such relationship means that the organisms are not harmed unnecessarily such as pollution, hunting/needless killing or introduction of foreign species. It also means that wildlife do not affect human endeavors such as crops raise and mariculture outside the ecotourism attraction. Wildlife are also able to mingle with people and be seen near human habitation to enhance interest in the ecotourism attractions.

B. Maintenance of the physico-chemical conditions of the area (see Figure 4)

1. Prohibit people including tourists from throwing of garbage just anywhere in the ecotourism attraction especially when the attraction is near a body of water,

2. Washing of clothes and other items should not be allowed in the ecotourism attractions or in the headwaters of the water body. What the barangay can do is to provide deep wells or create a small (really small) diversion canal or install pipes for conveying water to a place where laundry washing can be done. Wastewater should not be returned to the river/stream/creek or allowed to flow into the sea, but must be directed into a collecting pond which can filter into the ground. The collecting pond must be at least 40 – 50 meters away from a body of water.

3. Monitor the development of colonial blue-green algae in pools of water within the river. The presence of 500 cells/ml or more constitute a low alert level on algal bloom that can already cause sickness to humans. High alert level is when there are 15,000 cells/ml of water of this algae. (http://www.murraybluegreenalgae.com/algal_alerts.htm).

4. Garbage disposal site must be located far from the ecotourism attraction to prevent contamination of water and generation of bad smell that is offensive to tourists and local residents.

5. Local residents should not burn garbage especially plastics as they cause respiratory ailments.

6. Encourage local residents to go into material recovery such as collection and segregation of garbage, and recycling their organic waste through composting.

Figure 4 shows that the major emphasis of the ecotourism standard are management guidelines that will ensure maintenance of the quality of fresh water including air and soil by monitoring and preventing waste overflow in the environment.

Monitoring the development of colonial blue-green and green algae can be done by local schools that have basic laboratory facilities such as compound microscopes, glass slides, coverslips and stains that enhances the color of the algae for better determination. The method is very simple so that local people or students in the high school level can easily be trained by knowledgeable people in the university within the municipality/city or province. Other trainings involve recycling of inorganic wastes and composting of organic wastes which can be done in the barangay level.

The diagram further shows that when conscientiously followed, the maintenance of the physico-chemical conditions of the ecotourism area can be done, thus the ecotourism attraction remain attractive to tourists.

C. Conservation of Local culture and history (see Figure 5)

1. Educate the local communities especially the youth on ecotourism principles and local history;

2. Revive local history to enrich the ecotourism attractions;

3. Develop local crafts that make use of native materials not obtained from the protected area but cultivated by local people;

4. Revive some interesting and environmentally friendly cultural practices such as “harana” and local dances;

5. Preserve historical structures as they are part of our cultural heritage. In this regard, do not alter/paint/ modernize historical structures as they are also good educational testimony to historical realities. Restoration and minimal cleaning however can be allowed for aesthetic purposes;

6. Prevent cultural impacts such as using women, men and children to “entertain” guests;

7. Prohibit intoxication/drunkenness from liquor to both visitors and local people in the ecotourism area; and

8. Strictly enforce laws and regulations against illegal/prohibited drugs.

Figure 5. Conservation of Local Culture and History

The above diagram (Figure 5) shows the need for educating the local people especially the youth in order for them to learn how to value local history and one’s own cultural heritage including stories of the past to see beauty, beliefs and possible lessons which may have been translated into stories to become acceptable to receiving minds in the past.

Similarly, management guidelines in pursuance to the ecotourism standard of conserving local culture and history may be in the form of reviving local crafts important not only for livelihood but for pride in one’s own skills indigenous to the community.

Within the realm of culture is the maintenance of appropriate behavior to visitors to develop self esteem and dignity in one’s own humble abode. Thus, the diagram suggests proper decorum with regards to “entertaining guests” pertaining to women, men and children, intoxication and illegal drugs.

D. Infrastructures and Signboards (see Figure 6)

1. Zoning must be done for the different types of uses of the facilities in the area. Disturbance is brought about by the following, thus must be considered at the site management planning: number of visitors, noise, air pollution, water pollution, parking area, infrastructure and possibility of congestion.

2. The infrastructures and signboards should not dominate the surroundings and obstruct the view of the natural setting. The design of the signboards must blend with the environment. They should create the general effect of being part of the natural environment, e.g. appearing like bark of a tree or large leaf, etc.

3. High-rise buildings must not be constructed inside and/or adjacent to the ecotourism site. Only basic facilities necessary in the ecotourism project can be allowed.

4. Basic infrastructures needed are Visitors’ centers, toilet facilities, eateries and souvenir stores that must be constructed outside the boundaries of the ecotourism attractions. Toilet facilities must be located at least 30 – 40 meters from a body of water.

5. Cars, buses and other vehicles should not park near the ecotourism attractions. Provide a parking area within the cluster of infrastructures mentioned above.

Figure 6. Infrastructures and Signboards

The schematic diagram in Figure 6 presents three ecotourism standards and corresponding management guidelines that focus on zoning which consists of two major areas: a) the area outside the ecotourism attractions and b) the area within the ecotourism attractions. The former is where visitors park their vehicles, buy souvenir items and find relevant information about the attractions. It also contain facilities for briefing/orientation about certain desired behavior while within the premises of a) and b) areas. The area within the ecotourism attractions is where visitors come in contact with the natural environment and man-made structures with historical values to learn and enjoy the beauty and services that the attractions offer.

A zone outside the ecotourism attraction is also provided. It is a place where excess people are requested to stay and to wait for their turn to see the attractions. This is in connection with the carrying capacity of each attraction that must be followed (see Sustainability standard). Parking area and other facilities can be placed in this zone such as eateries, swimming area, and toilets.

E. Sustainability (see Figure 7)

Create an environmental education package that starts from the visitor’s center until the visitor leaves the area.

2. Support local livelihood projects and programs. Outside entrepreneurs must only assist local business, i.e. advertising and promotion.

3. Provide the following activities: a) Training of operators and staff, b) Setting up of Visitor’s Information Center, and c) Organizing guided tours with trained personnel.

The following jobs must be offered only to local people who must be trained

tour guides
information center staffs
food preparation
room accommodation per household
other services (janitorial, security guards, etc.)

5. Local government should provide the necessary ordinances and barangay resolutions in support of the ecotourism projects.

6. The maintenance of the carrying capacity of the environment can be done by limiting the number of visitors per hour/day. Do not allow congestion of people as water pollution and noise can destroy/disturb the ecosystem.

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals that can be accommodated in an area without affecting the state of the environment, the level of satisfaction of the visitor and the social culture of the host community Libosada (1998). Carrying capacity is the number of persons that can be accommodated in an area within a given time duration without altering much the habitat nor the state of the environment. It includes also that state of the environment that has the ability to absorb residuals (wastes) or naturally cycle waste. For man, the following are the considerations in determining the carrying capacity:

a) the space where the tourist (individual) can move about without causing annoyance, stress or uneasiness on another individual nearby;

b) the disturbance that tourist can possibly make, e.g. noise, mobility;

c) the nature of the place itself, e.g., rocky, muddy, forested, etc.; and

d) the distance/ length of time traveled by the visitors between her/his place of origin to the intended destination.

In this project, the Physical Carrying Capacity of the environment was adapted from the formula suggested by Boullon, Roberto C., 1985. Planificacion del Espacio Turistico. Editorial Trillas, Mexico, Cifuentes (1992) and Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/SocialEco%20Services/Methodology%20for%20carrying%20capacity.doc. Some modifications were done to simplify the formula for better understanding by local people.

Area used by tourists

Carrying Capacity (CC) =

Average individual standard

The Area Used by Tourists is the actual measurement in sq. meter, of the space that can possibly be occupied by people. The Average Individual Standard is the number of individuals at any given time that management will allow after weighing the considerations in determining the carrying capacity of the attractions (refer to guidelines for this section stated above). For instance, if you consider that normal human private space is 2 sq. meter, and the area used by the tourists is 100 sq. meter, then the carrying capacity is 50 persons. However, if considerations such as space for movement, disturbance each person make, i.e. , noise, nature of the place and length of time traveled by the visitors are factored in, the average individual standard may be increased to 10 sq. m. thus the carrying capacity will only be 10 in this case. This decision is therefore left to management and planners.

No. of Daily hours area is open to Tourists

Rotation Coefficient (RC) =

Average Time of Visit

The Rotation Coefficient determines the number of batch of people which can be allowed to stay in the attractions within a particular time duration. It is computed by dividing the number of hours the area is open to tourists over the average time (hour) spent during the visit.

The total number of allowed daily visits is then obtained:

Total of Daily Visits (TDV) = Carrying Capacity x Rotation Coefficient

Examples of computations for some of the ecotourism attractions:

Kawa-kawa pool

CC = 132 sq.m. RC = 10 hrs TDV = 16.5 x 1.67

8 sq.m/person 6 hrs

= 16.5 = 1.67 =28 persons/day

Japanese Tunnel No. 1

CC = 15 sq.m. RC = 8 hrs TDV = 3.75 x 16

4 sq.m/person 0.5 hr

= 3.75 = 16 = 60 persons/day

Figure 7. Sustainability of Community-Based Ecotourism Project

Figure 7 above shows that to ensure sustainability of the project, the involved persons in the Community-based Ecotourism project must undergo various trainings/capability-building in order to provide them with skills, i.e., leadership training, organizational development, linking with promotions agencies, livelihood development, paralegal training for enforcement of environmental laws, ordinances and barangay resolutions, tour guides, environmental education and other skills needed to manage the project effectively and profitably without destroying the ecotourism attractions.

The diagram also presents the importance of collaborative work between the local operators, the local government, the PAMB and various government agencies such as the DENR that can support the project through barangay resolutions and ordinances and enforcement of environmental laws.

When properly managed, visitors leave the area satisfied carrying with them good memories of the experience so as to promote the attractions to their colleagues so that the project continue to provide jobs and conserve the ecosystems of the ecotourism attractions.

C. COMMUNICATIONS PLAN

A communications plan is a plan that can guide the management about what information to give, to whom, for what purpose, how, and when. Its main objective is to accomplish the set goals and objectives of the project.

Based on Jeffries (1997), the interest in biodiversity is reinforced by 1) environmental campaigns involving publicity, direct action and political activism, particularly linked to tropical rainforests, and 2) public awareness of, interest in and familiarity with the richness of wildlife via the media. In the implementation of the project, the local community must show good rapport and appropriate behavior which is warm, interesting and responsible, the last makes visitors feel secure. Furthermore, a good ecotourism project can be promoted by travelers. Travelers can communicate good information about an ecotourism attraction. Similarly, ecotourists can help evaluate ecotour operators. Evaluating ecotourism constitute a) ethics, b) responsibility, c) information, and d) action (McLaren, http://ecotourism.about.com/travel/ecotourism/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm; http://www.planeta.com/planeta/96/1196agents.html)

Lastly, successful community-based ecotourism require a certain minimum level of social organization or community development that could strengthen community structures, nature conservation and cultural preservation. The organization needs organizational capability and social capital; may be developed in the course of project implementation.

In this section, the political will of the local government as well as the members of the community are important in ensuring successful flow of communication among the key players of the project.

Below is a diagram showing how the flow of communication among the key players in the ecotourism project should proceed.

Figure 8. Diagram of the Communications Plan of the Ecotourism Project for MINP

In Figure 8, the MB approves the ecotourism project of each Barangay Development Council (BDC). The BDC, trained on the VMS ecotourism standards and management guidelines, assigns a Project Management Committee (PMC). The PMC, equally trained on the VMS ecotourism standards and management guidelines, coordinates all the activities proposed by the project through the NGOs/POs, local tour operators, external tour operators and local residents. The PMC also works with the Environmental Education sector to provide trainings to all the key players of the project. The PMC also works with the media to promote the project, and with the local government, the DENR and other government agencies to ensure conservation/protection and promotion of the project.

When ecotourists are satisfied and had enjoyed the experiences in the area, they themselves can also promote the project to their friends, relatives and colleagues, thus ensures continued support for the project thereby jobs and conservation become sustainable.

Prepared by:

EMELINA G. REGIS, Ph.D.

Director, INECAR

January, 2004

References:

Boullon, Roberto C., 1985. Planificacion del Espacio Turistico. Editorial Trillas, Mexico

Cifuentes (1992) and Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) METHODOLOGY FOR CARRYING CAPACITY ASSESSMENT. http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/SocialEco%20Services/ Methodology%20for%20carrying%20capacity.doc

Chesworth, Nancy. 1995. Ecotourism Seminar paper delivered in the Institute of Environmental Studies and Management. UPLB. College, Laguna

Jeffries, Michael J. 1997. Biodiversity and Conservation. Routledge. London, Great Britain

Kersten, Axel. 1997. Community Based Ecotourism and Community Building: The Case of the Lacandones (Chiapas). http://www.greenbuilder.com/mader/planeta/1196/1196agents.html

Kusler, Jon. 1991. Conclusions and recommendations in Proceedings of the 2^nd International Symposium on Strengthening Resource Conservation through Ecotourism

Libosada, Carlos M. 1998. Ecotourism in the Philippines. Bookmark, Makati City.

McCormick, Kenneth. 1994. Can Ecotourism Save the Rainforests?. http://www.ran.org/ran/info_center/ecotourism.html. Rainforest Action Network

McLaren, http://ecotourism.about.com/travel/ecotourism/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm; http://www.planeta.com/planeta/96/1196agents.html

Miller, G. Tyler. 1997. Environmental Science: working with the Earth. 6^th edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, an International Thomson Publishing Company. USA

Regis, Emelina, Ramona Renegado, Emmanuel Abejero and Melanio Regis. 2000. Ecotourism project for the two municipalities of Sorsogon. Final Report. A project of Associates in Rural Development (ARD-GOLD) and the Provincial Government of Sorsogon

Monday, June 18, 2012

Ecotourism - Characteristics of ecotourism - Conceptual Framework of Ecotourism